 Sierra Leone is a nation that embodies a paradox of cultural unity and political fragmentation. Despite being one of the most culturally and religiously homogeneous countries in Africa, the country remains deeply polarized along regional and partisan lines. The dominant Islamic faith and the Fulani-Mande cultural foundation create profound commonalities among Sierra Leone’s major ethnic groups, including the Mende, Temne, Limba, and Mandingo. Inter-ethnic marriages, the widespread use of common surnames, and the overlapping linguistic traditions suggest that the country should, in theory, have a strong sense of national unity. However, political fragmentation has persisted as a significant challenge, sustained by historical legacies, elite manipulation, and institutional weaknesses. Unlike many African nations where ethnic and religious divisions are the main sources of conflict, Sierra Leone demonstrates how political identity can override cultural commonalities, fuelling instability.   Political polarization in Sierra Leone has been reinforced through decades of historical, colonial, and post-colonial political manoeuvring. The two dominant parties, the All People’s Congress (APC) and the Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP), have historically entrenched regional loyalties and reinforced a winner-takes-all system of governance. This political culture has created an environment where electoral victories often lead to the systematic exclusion of the opposition, heightening political tensions and fostering long-term instability. To understand why these divisions, persist despite a shared cultural foundation, it is essential to examine Sierra Leone’s historical trajectory, the role of secret societies, the importance of inter-ethnic surnames, and the ways political elites have strategically manipulated these identities to maintain power.   The political divisions in Sierra Leone have deep roots in the colonial governance structures established by the British. The colonial rulers implemented a dual system of governance, in which the north was governed through indirect rule—granting significant administrative power to local chiefs—while the south and east were subjected to direct rule under colonial officers. This system created significant economic and infrastructural disparities between the two regions, fuelling political competition and long-term rivalries (Bangura, 2015).   At independence in 1961, these colonial divisions continued to shape Sierra Leone’s political landscape. The SLPP, which had led the independence movement, was largely associated with the Mende-dominated south and east, while the APC, founded in the 1960s, built its political base in the predominantly Temne and Limba northern regions. Over the decades, political power has oscillated between these two dominant parties, each reinforcing regional loyalties and prioritizing its strongholds over national governance.   The civil war (1991–2002) further aggravated these divisions. While the war was driven by grievances related to corruption, economic marginalization, and centralized governance, it was also heavily influenced by regional factionalism. The Revolutionary United Front (RUF) insurgency, initially framed as a rebellion against state corruption, became deeply entangled in regional power struggles. Though the war ended in 2002, the mistrust it cultivated between political actors has continued to shape electoral politics and governance, making it difficult for the country to move beyond regional partisanship.  Despite the deep political divisions, Sierra Leone remains remarkably homogeneous in cultural and linguistic identity. One of the strongest indicators of this shared heritage is the prevalence of common surnames across ethnic groups. Names such as Koroma, Kamara, Conteh, Bangura, Fofanah, and Sesay are widely used among the Temne, Limba, Mandingo, and Mende peoples. These surnames have deep historical origins, tracing back to Fulani, Senegambian, Konyaka, Malinke, and Gbandi-Loko migrations that shaped Sierra Leone’s demographics.   The Koroma surname is particularly significant. While commonly associated with the Limba and Temne, it is also found among the Mende-speaking population. This widespread presence reflects the extensive influence of Mande heritage across Sierra Leone. Historically, the Koroma name has been linked to warriors, traders, and political leaders who played crucial roles in both pre-colonial and colonial Sierra Leone. Its presence across ethnic groups also suggests historical ties to the Mali and Songhai Empires, which facilitated the spread of Mande culture, language, and surnames across West Africa.   Similarly, the Fofanah surname, widely associated with the Mandingo, Temne, and Mende, has strong Senegambian roots. Many Fofanah families trace their lineage to Fulani-Mande Islamic scholars and traders who migrated southward from Mali and Guinea into Sierra Leone. Their integration into different communities over centuries led to the widespread adoption of the Fofanah name across various ethnic groups. Many individuals bearing the Fofanah name have historically played key roles in Islamic scholarship, governance, and commerce.   The Sesay surname is another example of a Mande-Senegambian name that has been adopted across multiple ethnic groups in Sierra Leone. Like the Fofanah name, Sesay is historically linked to Malian and Senegambian expansions, particularly during the height of the Mali Empire’s trade networks. Families with the Sesay name were influential in establishing trade routes, religious schools, and political networks, facilitating economic and social integration across different regions. The name’s widespread presence across various districts reinforces the idea that Sierra Leone’s ethnic groups have long been connected through trade, migration, and intermarriage.   Beyond surnames, place names in Sierra Leone also reflect Mande, Fulani, and Senegambian influences. The Koya region, which exists in both Port Loko and Kenema districts, directly references the Mane warriors who established strongholds in Sierra Leone and the broader Mano River Union region. The recurring names Gbendembu (in Bombali) and Nongowa (in Kenema) highlight the influence of Gbandi, Loko, and Mande-speaking groups in shaping Sierra Leone’s geographic and cultural landscape. The place name Sumbuya, found in almost every district, further underscores the deep historical interactions that have shaped Sierra Leone’s modern identity. One of the most enduring cultural institutions that binds Sierra Leone together is the predominance of Mande secret societies, particularly the Poro and Sande societies. These secret societies, which originated from the broader Mande cultural sphere, have played a critical role in shaping political, spiritual, and social life in Sierra Leone.   The Poro society, which is primarily for men, functions as an institution of governance, education, and moral regulation. It serves as a training ground
